Roman Magic:
Control in an Uncertain World
InGrid de Haas
Chariot races were immortalized by Roman artists.
Want to make a bet on a sure thing with a chariot race? The ancient Romans had a secret way of ensuring that the race was fixed. They used magic.
The use of magic wasn’t really a secret among the ancients. The Greeks, the Egyptians, the Mesopotamians, and everyone else in the ancient world used some form of magic, like spells, charms, and amulets. However, because historians of classical Rome and Greece have focused on political or military history or the history of the upper classes, few of us are familiar with the history of Roman magic. Yet every Roman, rich or poor, free or slave, needed or wanted to use magic at one point or another.
In fact, many Romans frequently visited a “Spells ’R Us” type of shop (in reality a friendly neighborhood magician who set up shop outside one of Rome’s many temples). There, they paid a small fee for a love potion, charm, spell, or amulet.
The Roman government viewed these shops with some concern; magic, after all, can be dangerous and even its adherents acknowledge that many practitioners are frauds. As a result, the Roman government often tried, always unsuccessfully, to forbid the use, and even the knowledge, of magic. Throughout the Republic (510 – 27 BC) and the Empire (27 BC – AD 476) laws forbidding magic were enacted and practitioners and users of magic were persecuted and punished.
But the many amulets and books of spells that archaeologists have found all demonstrate that this crackdown did not work. Magic didn’t disappear from Rome.
Murder
If a Roman wanted to get rid of a political rival, he had at least two options: he could do the killing himself or hire a hit man. But a third option that involved substantially less risk also existed. This entailed hiring a magician (a man or a woman) to commit the murder.
Instructions for committing a murder by using magic were relatively straight-forward. Get a piece of lead, shape it into a thin, flat rectangle, and inscribe a message to the infernal deities such as: “Deities, destroy Lucius. If you do so, I will make a donation to your temples.”
The use of magic wasn’t really a secret among the ancients. The Greeks, the Egyptians, the Mesopotamians, and everyone else in the ancient world used some form of magic, like spells, charms, and amulets. However, because historians of classical Rome and Greece have focused on political or military history or the history of the upper classes, few of us are familiar with the history of Roman magic. Yet every Roman, rich or poor, free or slave, needed or wanted to use magic at one point or another.
In fact, many Romans frequently visited a “Spells ’R Us” type of shop (in reality a friendly neighborhood magician who set up shop outside one of Rome’s many temples). There, they paid a small fee for a love potion, charm, spell, or amulet.
The Roman government viewed these shops with some concern; magic, after all, can be dangerous and even its adherents acknowledge that many practitioners are frauds. As a result, the Roman government often tried, always unsuccessfully, to forbid the use, and even the knowledge, of magic. Throughout the Republic (510 – 27 BC) and the Empire (27 BC – AD 476) laws forbidding magic were enacted and practitioners and users of magic were persecuted and punished.
But the many amulets and books of spells that archaeologists have found all demonstrate that this crackdown did not work. Magic didn’t disappear from Rome.
Murder
If a Roman wanted to get rid of a political rival, he had at least two options: he could do the killing himself or hire a hit man. But a third option that involved substantially less risk also existed. This entailed hiring a magician (a man or a woman) to commit the murder.
Instructions for committing a murder by using magic were relatively straight-forward. Get a piece of lead, shape it into a thin, flat rectangle, and inscribe a message to the infernal deities such as: “Deities, destroy Lucius. If you do so, I will make a donation to your temples.”
Etruscan gold bulla depicting Icarus, courtesy Walters Art Museum.
The magician then needed to follow a specific ritual. He or she would fold the lead tablet, pierce it with an iron nail, and take it to the graveyard. After making sure that there was no curse written on the tombstone (such as “May anyone who disturbs this tomb die by the hand of Jupiter!”), the magician dug a hole big enough to insert the tablet into the grave. After this, the intended victim would die.
Did this approach work? Those of us who are skeptical would say no.
However, because few people in ancient Rome lived past the age of 30 and because knowledge of the human body was so limited, sudden deaths were not uncommon.
Who was to say that this death wasn’t the result of magic?
Love
Then as today, romantic issues dominated the practice of magic---or at least according to the evidence that we have for the use of magic during this period.
Suspect your husband of having an affair? Commission a magician to fix it.
The magician would inscribe a lead tablet with words to this effect: “Deity, turn Domitia away from the body of Gaius.”
You could also try using an amulet which could be made of stone, papyrus, or metal to get your husband back.
But what if you were passionately in love with someone else but too shy to approach her? Or what if, worse yet, she was married to someone else?
In this instance, you could hire a magician who would then make two clay figurines, one male, one female. After inscribing the names of the intended lovers, Cornelia and Quintus, the magician would then tie the figurines together with string. Next he had to find a strand of hair or a piece of fabric from the clothing of Cornelia and Quintus. These figures and objects were then deposited in the grave of someone who had died by violence. While doing so the magician uttered a spell, asking a deity to unite the two forever.
Did this approach work? Those of us who are skeptical would say no.
However, because few people in ancient Rome lived past the age of 30 and because knowledge of the human body was so limited, sudden deaths were not uncommon.
Who was to say that this death wasn’t the result of magic?
Love
Then as today, romantic issues dominated the practice of magic---or at least according to the evidence that we have for the use of magic during this period.
Suspect your husband of having an affair? Commission a magician to fix it.
The magician would inscribe a lead tablet with words to this effect: “Deity, turn Domitia away from the body of Gaius.”
You could also try using an amulet which could be made of stone, papyrus, or metal to get your husband back.
But what if you were passionately in love with someone else but too shy to approach her? Or what if, worse yet, she was married to someone else?
In this instance, you could hire a magician who would then make two clay figurines, one male, one female. After inscribing the names of the intended lovers, Cornelia and Quintus, the magician would then tie the figurines together with string. Next he had to find a strand of hair or a piece of fabric from the clothing of Cornelia and Quintus. These figures and objects were then deposited in the grave of someone who had died by violence. While doing so the magician uttered a spell, asking a deity to unite the two forever.
Etruscan gold bulla, 3rd c. BC, undisplayed, Metropolitan Museum.
Legal cases
The Romans had a fairly advanced legal system, but it often favored those who were both wealthy and free. So it made sense that those without economic or political power attempted to bypass the courts and use magic instead.
If you had a ring stolen and knew who the thief was, a magician would inscribe a spell on a lead tablet saying, “Deity, bring Titus to justice; make him return my ring, and then let him loose his fortune.”
For those who were brought to trial, magic still had its uses. Defendants often prepared two types of defense: a non-magical legal defense, and a defense that used magic. Verbal or written spell could call upon the deity to “bind the tongue of my opponent Rufus and make him speechless. Do not let him win this lawsuit.”
Many a lawyer for the losing party claimed that spells had made him forget his words or tied his tongue, a clear indication that many Romans believed that the practice of magic was widespread.
Chariot races
Everyone from the emperor down to the lowest slave, loved chariot racing. Gambling was widespread at these races, with many Romans prepared to bet everything they owned as well as money they had borrowed at outrageous rates of interest, all in the hopes of a big win.
The Romans had a fairly advanced legal system, but it often favored those who were both wealthy and free. So it made sense that those without economic or political power attempted to bypass the courts and use magic instead.
If you had a ring stolen and knew who the thief was, a magician would inscribe a spell on a lead tablet saying, “Deity, bring Titus to justice; make him return my ring, and then let him loose his fortune.”
For those who were brought to trial, magic still had its uses. Defendants often prepared two types of defense: a non-magical legal defense, and a defense that used magic. Verbal or written spell could call upon the deity to “bind the tongue of my opponent Rufus and make him speechless. Do not let him win this lawsuit.”
Many a lawyer for the losing party claimed that spells had made him forget his words or tied his tongue, a clear indication that many Romans believed that the practice of magic was widespread.
Chariot races
Everyone from the emperor down to the lowest slave, loved chariot racing. Gambling was widespread at these races, with many Romans prepared to bet everything they owned as well as money they had borrowed at outrageous rates of interest, all in the hopes of a big win.
Roman gamblers used magic to improve their chances.
Under those circumstances, who wouldn’t want to use a little magic to better the odds?
A savvy Roman would head straight for the temple of Fortuna. There he would find what he wanted: a magician unpacking his wares in the shade of a tree that stood next to the main entrance. Among the magician’s wares were amulets and, of course, the usual lead tablets. For a small fee, the magician would inscribe the names of the horses of the other teams on a tablet, along with a request to a deity to “Bind their feet and hobble them.”
After the magician finished inscribing, folding, and piercing the tablet with a nail, the gambler would then the nail the inscription to the ground beneath the starting gates, making sure to hide it by covering it up with a bit of dust.
Did his team loose or win? If it won, the Roman would be sure to credit the magician. Unfortunately, if he had lost, he would lose not only his money but also his freedom as creditors seized him. For some unhappy gamblers, suicide followed.
Health and contraception
In the pre-antibiotic era, illnesses were widespread and often incurable. Not surprisingly, the Romans used all kinds of remedies to treat their illnesses; magic was just one approach to curing illnesses.
A dislocation or fracture could be treated by binding a 5-foot green reed to the injury, and then saying the following incantation: “motas vaeta daries dardares astataries dissunapiter.” The Romans weren’t averse to calling on foreign as well as Roman deities; a scorpion sting could be treated, or so it was believed, by invoking Serket, the Egyptian deity of magic.
A savvy Roman would head straight for the temple of Fortuna. There he would find what he wanted: a magician unpacking his wares in the shade of a tree that stood next to the main entrance. Among the magician’s wares were amulets and, of course, the usual lead tablets. For a small fee, the magician would inscribe the names of the horses of the other teams on a tablet, along with a request to a deity to “Bind their feet and hobble them.”
After the magician finished inscribing, folding, and piercing the tablet with a nail, the gambler would then the nail the inscription to the ground beneath the starting gates, making sure to hide it by covering it up with a bit of dust.
Did his team loose or win? If it won, the Roman would be sure to credit the magician. Unfortunately, if he had lost, he would lose not only his money but also his freedom as creditors seized him. For some unhappy gamblers, suicide followed.
Health and contraception
In the pre-antibiotic era, illnesses were widespread and often incurable. Not surprisingly, the Romans used all kinds of remedies to treat their illnesses; magic was just one approach to curing illnesses.
A dislocation or fracture could be treated by binding a 5-foot green reed to the injury, and then saying the following incantation: “motas vaeta daries dardares astataries dissunapiter.” The Romans weren’t averse to calling on foreign as well as Roman deities; a scorpion sting could be treated, or so it was believed, by invoking Serket, the Egyptian deity of magic.
This child's tombstone depicts the boy wearing his bulla.
Women who wanted to avoid getting pregnant had a variety of magical choices. One was to make an amulet out of a piece of fawn skin bound with mule hide. They then stuffed this with bittervetch seeds, the mucus of a cow, and some grains of barley. All this had to be done during the waning of the moon while invoking an otherworldly being.
Supernatural protection
Most Romans seemed to live in constant fear of supernatural powers and forces that they believed in but did not understand. This made them pay magicians frequent visits in order to buy amulets as protection against spells, against the evil eye, against the power of spirits and demons, and even against evil in general.
The Romans believed that children were especially vulnerable. This seems reasonable, due to the high mortality rates among infants and children, few of whom lived to the age of 10. So no self-respecting parent would neglect to get an amulet, a bulla for a son or a lunula for a daughter, right after birth. Unfortunately, as archaeologists can attest, these amulets seldom made a difference.
The view from the other side
What about all those who offered their services, that is, male and female magicians, sorcerers, and witches? Did they believe in magic? Did they believe in the spells and charms they used and sold? Or did they know that they were selling fraudulent goods?
It is hard to tell what their view was. All we can say for certain is that there was a very large market for what they had to offer, and giving customers what they wanted kept them in business throughout Rome’s dominions and beyond.
Ingrid De Haas received her Ph.D. in ancient Roman history from the University of California. She has published two works of historical fiction: Roman Arms: Huntress a novel about Camilla, a character from Virgil's Aeneid and Take my Order for an Amulet about slave resistance and magic in the ancient world.
Supernatural protection
Most Romans seemed to live in constant fear of supernatural powers and forces that they believed in but did not understand. This made them pay magicians frequent visits in order to buy amulets as protection against spells, against the evil eye, against the power of spirits and demons, and even against evil in general.
The Romans believed that children were especially vulnerable. This seems reasonable, due to the high mortality rates among infants and children, few of whom lived to the age of 10. So no self-respecting parent would neglect to get an amulet, a bulla for a son or a lunula for a daughter, right after birth. Unfortunately, as archaeologists can attest, these amulets seldom made a difference.
The view from the other side
What about all those who offered their services, that is, male and female magicians, sorcerers, and witches? Did they believe in magic? Did they believe in the spells and charms they used and sold? Or did they know that they were selling fraudulent goods?
It is hard to tell what their view was. All we can say for certain is that there was a very large market for what they had to offer, and giving customers what they wanted kept them in business throughout Rome’s dominions and beyond.
Ingrid De Haas received her Ph.D. in ancient Roman history from the University of California. She has published two works of historical fiction: Roman Arms: Huntress a novel about Camilla, a character from Virgil's Aeneid and Take my Order for an Amulet about slave resistance and magic in the ancient world.
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